For those who challenge the narrative of the “Bukele model,” the most terrifying moment isn’t always the arrest. This proves the silence that precedes it. In El Salvador, this silence is often filled by the sound of unmarked police cars and the sight of officers conducting “censuses” at the homes of dissidents—vague inquiries about internet access and vehicle ownership that serve as a psychological prelude to detention.
Since 2022, a sweeping state of emergency has transformed the country into a laboratory for a brand of security that trades constitutional rights for a drastic drop in homicide rates. While President Nayib Bukele maintains a high level of domestic popularity, the cost of this security is borne by a growing number of journalists and human rights defenders persecuted in Bukele’s El Salvador, many of whom now operate from exile or live in constant fear of “vicarious violence” targeting their families.
The state of emergency, originally intended to last 30 days to combat gang violence, has been extended dozens of times and is now entering its fourth year. Under these measures, police can arrest citizens without a judicial warrant, effectively suspending the right to due process. According to official data, more than 91,000 people have been detained—representing over 1.4% of the total population—since the measures began.
For the state, these arrests are a victory against terrorism. For international observers and human rights organizations, they are a mechanism for the erosion of democracy. Independent experts have warned the United Nations and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights that the emergency has facilitated arbitrary arrests, torture, and forced disappearances that could constitute crimes against humanity.
The Criminalization of Land and Environment
The persecution often begins where state interests and local resources collide. In eastern El Salvador, the construction of the planned Pacific Airport in La Unión has turned land defenders into targets. Óscar René Martínez Iglesias, a fisherman and founder of the Indigenous Movement for the Articulation of the Struggles of the Ancestral Peoples (MILPA), was accused of gang membership and prosecuted in June 2023 after questioning state compensation and forced displacements.
The pattern is consistent: activists who oppose mega-projects are branded as criminals. Ángel Flores, the regional coordinator of MILPA, remains in the country despite the risks, viewing his persistence as a form of resistance. “My personal position is not to leave the country, but to keep up the fight,” Flores says.
Similar pressures are felt in the north, where the fight against metal mining has historically been a deadly endeavor. Vidalina Morales, leader of the Asociación de Desarrollo Económico y Social (ADES), helped lead the movement that made El Salvador the first country to ban metal mining in 2017. However, the Bukele administration has moved to revive the industry, fast-tracking legislation in December 2024 to overturn the ban.
Morales has faced not only professional harassment but personal trauma. In May 2023, police arrested her son under the state of emergency. While he was released a day later, Morales describes the event as a calculated attempt to silence her. “What they were after was for me to stop speaking, to step back from the fight,” she says.
A War of Attrition Against the Press
The pressure on the media has shifted from the threat of gang violence to the threat of state prosecution. Between 2020 and 2022, the government overtook organized crime as the primary perpetrator of attacks against journalists, utilizing information blackouts and smear campaigns to isolate critical voices.
The introduction of the Foreign Agents Law in May 2025 accelerated a mass exodus of media professionals. Nearly 60 journalists from digital, print, and community outlets have fled the country, with some relocating their entire operations to Costa Rica. Angélica Cárcamo, former president of the Salvadoran Journalists’ Association, left the country ten months ago, describing the heavy burden of freedom in exile.
This “war of attrition” is not limited to individuals but extends to the organizations that protect them. Cristosal, a prominent human rights group, faced a systematic campaign of audits, the withdrawal of tax exemptions, and public branding as “defenders of gang members.” The pressure culminated in an April 2025 police raid on their offices, followed by the arrest of anti-corruption lawyer Ruth López in May 2025 on embezzlement charges.
By July 2025, Cristosal was forced to close its San Salvador office and transfer operations to Guatemala. A recent report from the organization documented 245 victims of persecution and criminalization between 2019 and 2025, noting that 86 remain detained without trial.
Transnational Repression and the Path to Exile
For many, leaving the borders of El Salvador does not mean escaping the reach of the state. The government has increasingly employed “transnational repression,” using international law enforcement tools to intimidate dissidents abroad.
Malcolm Cartagena, a former electoral trainer at the Supreme Electoral Tribunal, fled the country after police began visiting his home under the guise of a census. Cartagena, who suffers from severe chronic kidney failure, feared that detention would be a death sentence. “If they arrest me, they’ll let me die,” he says.
The use of Interpol “red notices” has become a primary tool for this reach. Lawyers Ivania Cruz and Rudy Joya, members of the Human Rights and Community Defense Unit (UNIDEHC), found themselves detained in Spain after the Salvadoran prosecutor’s office issued warrants related to their work defending the La Floresta community. While the Spanish government eventually granted them asylum, the process highlighted the risk faced by defenders even thousands of miles from home.
| Milestone | Date | Impact on Human Rights/Press |
|---|---|---|
| State of Emergency Introduced | March 2022 | Suspension of constitutional rights; warrantless arrests. |
| Mining Ban Overturned | December 2024 | Increased risk for environmental defenders. |
| Foreign Agents Law | May 2025 | Mass exodus of approximately 60 journalists. |
| Cristosal Office Closure | July 2025 | Transfer of human rights monitoring to Guatemala. |
The current landscape in El Salvador is one of stark contradictions. While the administration points to a significant decline in homicide rates as justification for its methods, the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights continues to raise alarms over the lack of due process and the systemic silencing of dissent.
The next critical juncture for these defenders will be the ongoing legal battles in Spanish courts and the potential for further Interpol requests, as the Salvadoran government continues to challenge the asylum status of its exiled critics. For those still inside, the struggle remains a daily gamble against the “iron fist.”
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Disclaimer: This article discusses legal proceedings and human rights allegations. The information provided is for journalistic purposes and does not constitute legal advice.
